Molecular probes of phylogeny and biogeography in toads of the widespread genus Bufo.

Genetic relationships among 25 species of Central and South American Bufo and among representative North, Central, and South American, Asian, and African Bufo were probed, using the quantitative immunological technique of microcomplement fixation (MC'F) which indicated a clear separation of North, Central, and South American lineages of Bufo. The South American lineage likely diverged from the Central and North American lineages in the Eocene; the latter two lineages diverged later, probably in the mid-Oligocene. Some species groups of South American toads, defined on the basis of traditional morphological studies, are genetically quite similar within groups, whereas others are genetically divergent. The amount of albumin evolution does not appear to parallel the amount of karyotypic, morphological, ecological, or behavioral evolution documented. Comparisons suggest that the African lineages separated from the American and Asian lineages in the late Cretaceous, corresponding to the time of the final separation of Gondwanaland, the southern supercontinent including the modern continents of South America, Africa, Australia, Antarctica, and India. The Asian lineages diverged from the lineage giving rise to all of the American species in the early Paleocene.